Internet of Bio-Nano Things (IoBNT) Security: A Comprehensive Survey of Threat Models, Protocols, Mitigation Strategies, Technological Integrations, Tools, and Performance Metrics

Abstract

The Internet of Bio-Nano Things (IoBNT) constitutes a transformative paradigm to support applications in precision medicine, environmental monitoring, and bio-hybrid cyber-physical systems. However, it faces a complex security landscape. Existing research typically examines isolated threats, individual protocol layers, or specific communication modalities, rather than providing a unified perspective on security vulnerabilities, threat models, and mitigation strategies across the entire IoBNT stack. This study provides a comprehensive, structured, and security-centric overview of IoBNT systems by identifying and classifying security threats; analyzing existing and emerging security protocols and mitigation techniques; examining enabling technological integrations that support secure IoBNT operations; and establishing coherent performance metrics and evaluation criteria. The study adopted a comprehensive review methodology, examining 153 research papers retrieved from Frontiers, ACM Digital Library, Wiley Online Library, Nature, Springer Nature, ScienceDirect, MDPI, IEEE Xplore Digital Library, and Google Scholar, with a focus on publications from 2023 to 2026 that addressed security aspects of the IoBNT. The survey examines contemporary security challenges and defenses in the IoBNT ecosystem. It synthesizes state-of-the-art mitigation strategies alongside reinforcing technological integrations for predictive bio-cyber risk assessment and quantum-safe mechanisms that support long-term resilience. The analysis also surveys tools, simulation frameworks, testbeds, and experimental platforms used to model, validate, and benchmark IoBNT security solutions, while consolidating standardized performance metrics. Finally, it maps the current research landscape, identifies open challenges, and outlines future directions for developing secure, reliable, and ethically aligned IoBNT systems. This survey offers important implications for both researchers and practitioners by delivering a holistic security perspective that informs the design of robust, interoperable, and trustworthy IoBNT systems.